The Serpent Cloumn was with three snake heads jaws open and streched to support a golden tripod on which there was a golden bowl. The golden tripod is thought to have been  stolen by the Phocians in 355 BC.

The column is broken both on the lower and upper parts. There are several rumors about it. While some states that Mehmed II protects it by ordering a mulberry tree growing near it, some says that the lower jaw was broken by him after the Conquest. A single upper jaw is on display now in Istanbul Archeological Museum. It was discovered by Fossatis during the restoration of Hagia Sophia.

Head of a Serpent – Belongs to the Serpent Column at the Hippodrome.

In the 18th century, the heads of the snakes were lost. In 1855, a water conduit and a lead pipe was discovered in the base of the column which proves that it was used as a fountain for a while. For that reason, it must have survived the loot of the Crusaders.  It was also used as a talisman against snakes.

There is a miniature of the column in Hunername (the Book of Skills) which is on display in Topkapi Palace.

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Although the tower is being used as a restaurant nowadays, it has had many different functions throughout the history. Firstly used as a castle, it was used as a tower by Manuel Komnenos in the 12th century. He extended a chain to block the entrance between two towers. Then, the tower became a quarantina house in a cholera epidemic.

In the 5th century it was used as a customs house. Ottomans used it as a lighthouse and later a radar station in 1959 for its navy. It was even used as a place for exile.

View of Maiden’s Tower, Istanbul. 1822

Maiden’s Tower, Istanbul, 18th Century (Kiz Kulesi)

The Maiden’s Tower has also had many legends about it. One of them is about a Byzantine Princess whose death was foreseen that she would be bitten by a snake. Learning that his daughter would be poisoned, the King sent her to the tower. However; the beloved princess was bitten by a snake that hid in a basket of apples that brought to the tower.

Another legend is about a young man named Leandros. According to the legend, Leandros used to swim accross the sea every night to reach his lover in the tower. One night the waves became unvisible because of  a storm and Leandros drowned that night.

There is one other legend which is about an Athenian general who buried his wife- Damalis there. For this reason the tower was called as Damalis Tower as well.

A View Across the Bosphorus Towards Kız Kulesi by Night, 1848 Carlo Bossoli

Maiden’s Tower, Istanbul, 1876, ‘Sanford Robinson Gifford’

The Maiden’s Tower has survived many earthquakes and fires like any other structure in Constantinople. and so went under many restorations. Today you can visit it every day and enjoy the beautiful view of the Marmara sea.

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After the 4th Crusade, it was used as a watchtower surrounded by walls. There was a cross on the wooden top of it.  After the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed II acknowledged the privileges of Galata and a voyvoda administed it. Takiyüddin Efendi – a famous astrologer- added an observatory to the tower and the Sultan Selim III built the balcony.

In 1960s, the wooden interior was replaced by a concrete structure. It was used as a prison and later as a dormitory for military band.

Altough it experienced many fives & earthquakes we can still see the effects of the Genoese style in the first three floors. Today, there is a restaurant & coffee on the upper floors.

Its current name Galata is thought to have came from “calata” in Italian which means the road that leads down to the sea.

The Galata Tower is mostly famous for “Hezerfan Ahmet Çelebi” who tried to fly across the Bosphorus with his wings made of eagle feathers from the Galata Tower and succeeded in landing safely.

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Hagia Sophia and Hagia Eirene

History

Constantine I built a small church where a pagan temple existed before in the honour of the peace that came to the Roman world after long years of civil wars. Hagia Eirene became more important when the Second Ecumenical Council was held in 381 there.

When Hagia Sophia was burned down in 404, Hagia Eirene became the main church for 11 years. Howewer;it was burned down thoroughly in 532 in Nika Riots .

Caption Slaughter in the Hippodrome at Constantinople in AD 532. Artist Roger Payne

It was reconstructed as a domed basilica by Justinian. Damaged mostly by an earthquake in 740, Hagia Eirene was rebuilt by Constantine V in 753. Being the only church that wasn’t converted into a mosque in the city, Hagia Eirene served as an arsenal by Janissaries after the conquest of Constantinople.

Hagia Eirene became both the first ‘’Turkish Museum’’ and then ‘’ the Museum of Empire’’. It was also used as ‘’the Military Museum’’ between 1908 and 1978.

Architecture & Art

Hagia Eirene is an original example of a cross-domed basilica representing  the Iconoclastic Art with its magnificent mosaic cross surviving today. Taken from the temple of Aphrodite, the marble stones & columns and the capitals bearing the monograms of Justinian & Theodora are the most striking relics of the church.

Apse – Dome of Hagia Eirene

Atrium

The unique Byzantine atrium surviving today is unfortunately  close to the visitors today. Once, it housed a part of the chain of Golden Horn, a silver statue of Empress Eudocia and a Byzantine church bell made of bronze. Today you can see a porphyry sarcophagus, believed to be the tomb of Constantine the Great in the garden.

Atrium, Hagia Eirene.

Apse

The apse of Hagia Eirene is a very rare- maybe the unique example in Constantinople. The three windows symbolize the trinity in Christian world. And the synthronon (the stepped platform used by priests) is an attribute of Mount Golgotha where Christ was crucified. The Golden Cross (aka Golgotha Cross) that is outlined in black tesserae on a golden background is the most fascinating relic, surviving the Iconoclastic Period.

Apse of Hagia Eirene Church

The arches of the apse are inscripted with two lines from old Testament in mosaic letters:

The inner arch reads: ‘’We shall be filled with the good things of thy house; thy temple is holy. (Thou art) wonderful in righteousness. Harken to us, o God our Saviour; the hope of all ends of the earth, and of them a far off on the sea.

The outer arch reads: ‘’It is he that builds his ascent up to the sky, and establishes his promise on the earth; the Lord almighty is his name’’

Dome

The drum of the dome is pierced by 20 windows and just the five of it is open now.

Note that museum card is invalid in the museum.

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Once located in today’s Sultan Ahmet District, the Great Palace of Constantinople was built by Constantine the Great. The Palace area extended from Hippodrome to the coastline. Destroyed in Nika Riot in the 6th century, the Great Palace was rebuilt by Justinian I. The mosaics, decorating the floors of the museum today date back to that restoration time. The mosaics are just one seventh of the original work.

The Great Palace was a complex with libraries, churches, meeting halls and even a stadium. It was also the administration building of Constantinople and surrounded by churches and palaces like Daphne and Kathisma Palaces. The Palace was entered by the Bronze Gate, aka Chalke. The building went under restorations under Basil I and Justinian II. After the conquest of the city, the Palace was used as a prison.

The mosaics of the Palace were discovered during the excavations between ’35-’38 and ’51-’54. Later, in a Turkey-Austria joint project, the mosaics were worked on and in 1987, they were placed in its current preservation hall.
The mosaics, covering the courtyard of the Great Palace, were removed and after a long process of restoration including the re-attachment of the mosaics with a special kind of wax and mortar. The mosaics were cleansed and polished again.

The Great Palace Mosaic Museum was inaugurated in 1987. The mosaics in the museum mostly depict the animals and humans in nature , mythological, pastoral motifs and hunting scenes.

Great Palace Mosaic Museum: Mosaics 

List of Mosaics

1. Shepherd carrying a lamb: In this mosaic, the shepherd who is known as “the Good Shepherd” carries his lamb on his back.
2. There is a fisherman sitting on a shore and holds a rod with a fish. There is also a fish basket and the remains of a second fisherman.
3. The gooseherds: A boy and a girl herding two geese are depicted in this mosaic.
4. Herdsman milking a goat: An old bearded shepherd is milking his goat and a boy is holding a milk jug. This scene reflects the pastoral life.
5. A man is feeding his mule.
6. In this mosaic, two children are seated on a dromedary and one of them with a wreath around his head is holding a bird in one hand and reins with the other hand. There is also a guide in front of them.
7. Hoop-trundling: Four children are trundling hoops in this mosaic panel. Hoop-trundling was a popular sport and believed to be healthy activity. Two boys are wearing blue shawls while the other two wearing green ones, which represents the rivalry of ‘the Blues’ and ‘the Greens’ -two political fractions of the time.
8. Small boy and his dog: the boy who has a larger head compared to his body is petting his dog. He wears a red tunic and he is bare-footed.
9. Mother and the dog: A mother is breastfeeding his baby. The scene is a representation of the depiction of Isis with her child Horus. A dog on the left of the woman is looking at her with its raised head.
10. A woman figure carrying a jug on her shoulder.
11. A philosopher sitting on a rock.
12. The donkey and its owner: A donkey is kicking its owner with its back feet up in the air.
13. The fight between a hunter and a wounded leopard.
14. Hunting the tiger: Two hunters with sleeveless tunics with badges on have spears on their hands. They are thought to be the guards of the Palace.
15. A hunter carries a sword , a shield and a spear.
16. Hunting Rabbits: The dogs are attacking the rabbits on its neck and abdomen. The hunter is depicted to have just released the dogs.
17. The Lion and The Elephant: The elephant is depicted as attacking a male lion around the lion’s neck with its trunk.
18. The stag and the snake: In some ancient texts, the stag is seen as a rival of the snake. It can also draw a snake out of its hole with its breath. the deer was also a symbol of fertility and the animal of Artemis.The stag is illustrated with an erect penis in the scene. And the snake is curled around the stag’s body.
19. The Eagle and the Snake: The eagle with its wings up has caught the snake which is rolled around the eagle’s body. It is the symbol of victory of light over darkness. It is a widely used motif from Roman times.
20. Leopard hunting a deer
21. Bear hunting a lamb
22. Leopards hunting a deer.
23. The struggle of lion.
24. This lion griffin has an eagle head with manes, a body of a lion and wings. It is depicted as attacking a deer on the back, and bloods are dripping from its claws.
25. The tigriss-griffin: This tigriss(female) Griffin has two horns and wings and a wild look in its face. Crimson drops of blood come out of its mouth.
26. The lion-griffin has an eagle head and wings and a long tail.
27. The Bear Family: In this mosaic panel, we see a group of bear. One is climbing an apple tree, one is eating an apple and one of them is attacking a man who falls on his knees.
28. Stallion, Mare and Foal: This scene symbolizes rural life. They all have smaller heads compared to their bodies.
29. The Monkey as a Bird-Catcher: The monkey under a date tree is holding a long stick in his hands and trying to catch birds. He has a wooden cage on its back wtih a bird on it. Monkeys are known to have been used in some chores.
30. Animals are grazing.
31. Bellerophon and the Chimaera: Chimaera is the monster with three heads( the lion-head with tree forked-tongue, the snake-head as the tail, and a goat-head on its back) Bellerophon is attacking the lion with its spear on his horse- Pegasus, which is destroyed mostly. You can see just the feet of Pegasus and spear of Bellerophon.
32. The child Dionysos Riding on Pan’s shoulder: Dionysos, the God of wine is depicted as a child on the shoulders of Pan, the God of satyrs and herds. It is half-goat and half-man. Dionysos has a wreath of leaves on his head and holds the horns of Pan. They are followed by an elephant with a man on it.
33. Workers in the field.
34. A wellhouse.
35. The okapi-headed Leopard-Griffin.
36. Mounted huntsman in oriental garb hunting gazelles.
37. Hunting the lion with bow and arrow.
38. Reclining woman and branch of a tree (South western hall)
39. Mountain Goats. (South western hall)
40. Lioness and cub. (South western hall)
41. Marten and its prey.
42. Leg of a Hunter. (South western hall)
43. Wolf attacking a flock of sheep.
44. Hunter and Dog – South western hall.
45. Detail from a portrait.
46. Flight of Birds.
47. The figure of mustachioed mask.
48. Mask figure with acanthus beard.
49. Details from the pastoral compositions in the Great Palace mosaics.

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When Swedish Vikings made their way to Russia in the 9^th century for trading, they established a quick relationship with Slavs. They married them and got the name ‘’Rus’’ as a Nordic Slavic nobility. This community chose ‘’Varangians’’ who were Viking warriors from the North to trade.

Varangians preferred invading Byzantium first. However, when they couldn’t achieve it, they established a business connection with Byzantium. Later, Byzantines hired them as mercenaries. In time, they fought against Turks, Arabs and even Catholics in the Crusades. Moreover, Varangians of Constantinople converted to Christianity and found a place in the Imperial Army until the end of the empire in 1453.

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Today in the outer narthex, some relics (like a copy of Synod Tablets, Porphyr Altar, Snake Patterned Pool, Bell of Hagia Sophia and Sarcophagus of an Empress) from Hagia Sophia church are exhibited. Five gates lead into the inner narthex. The little domes of the inner narthex are covered with mosaics. There is a rampart leading to the upper gallery on the north side.

A Crested Brick

There is a crested brick on the ground floor beneath the Emperor’s door. This adobe brick was, by chance, upside and it was written: “Constantinople” on it.

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The Million stone which is thought to be the starting point in the world was outside on the Ausgustaion. In the southwest corner of it, there was a 50 meter high bronze sheated column which would carry the statue of Justinian (column of Justinian) holding a globe on one hand and pointing the east with other hand.

The square was full of statues of the Emperors like Justinian and Theodosius. There was also a statue of Augusta Helena by whose name Augustaion was named after.

The square was destructed firstly by the 4^th Crusaders however it was demolished mostly by the Ottomans.

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Basilica Cistern was repaired by Justinian and came to its current state after a fire in Nika Riot. Before that, it’s believed that it had a porticoed courtyard with marble columns. The cistern was used to supply water which was carried from Belgrade forest via the Valence Aqueduct. The water was used for the Great Palace especially during summer time, then the Ottomans used it for Topkapi Palace.

Medusa Head, Basilica Cistern of Constantinople

In the 16 th century, the cistern was rediscovered by a Dutch Traveler – Petrus Gyllius. He narrates that people would pull water with buckets from the holes and even fish there.

It was restorated in 1985 and opened to public in 1987. The Cistern had a capacity to hold about 80.000 tons of water. However, all water you can see is one-meter in depth.

Columns

Basilica cistern has 336 columns laid out in 12 rows of 28. They are made of marble and granite most of which are Corinthian style.

Some of the columns are believed to have been taken from the Forum of Theodosius.

Basilica Cistern is a fascinating place telling many legends and stories with its different hinds of columns and capitals bearing them. One of them is the Hen’s eye column with tear-drop motifs on it. Tears are attributed to the 7.000 slaves that were employed for the building. Hundreds of them died during the construction.

Gorgon Heads

In the classical world, you can see Gorgon images used in important places. They are mostly interpreted as an evil-eye. In Basilica Cistern their power to gorgonize the onlookers are thought to be negated by putting these gorgeous heads in a reverse or lateral position.

According to a legend, Medusa is one of the 3 Gorgon sisters and was once a beautiful maiden. After a charm that converted her hair into snakes, her gaze would turn anyone that look at her into stone. Putting these enormous heads in the structure is also believed as an abandonment of pagan beliefs of Romans.

Basilica Cistern in Literature

Basilica Cistern is also a subject in modern & old literature. In his ‘’Innocents Abroad’’, Mark Twain refers to the cistern as ‘’Thousand & One Columns’’ and describes it as:

‘’You’re 40 feet underground, and in the midst of a perfect wilderness of tall, slender, granite columns of Byzantine Architecture. Stand where you would, or change your position as often as you pleased, you were always a centre from which radiated a dozen long archways and colonnades that last themselves in distance and the somber twilight of the place.’’

Dan Brown’s bestseller-Inferno also gives an important role to the cistern in its adventorous plot. The book was filmed in 2016 starring Tom Hanks.

Basilica cistern has an enchanting atmosphere with its crimson aura coming from its brick walls and vaults with echoing sounds around you. It is open daily for visiting. Various concerts and events are held there from time to time. However, note that entrance with your museum card isn’t available in the cistern.

Featured Image Credit: Muze Biletleri

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Byzantion was founded by a Greek colony-Byzas before it was conquered by a Roman Emperor . This little sea shore town -Byzantion flourished to a capital of the empire of Constantine the Great who reunited the West & East Rome under his rule and renamed the city as ‘’Constantinople’’. Constantine had been a pagan before he converted to the Christianity. After Constantine died, his successor Constantinus decided that Byzantine needed his own Pantheon. It was Hagia Sophia– Sophia of God, Holy Wisdom; that is the second person of Trinity: Christ.

The Emperor Constantine took his spear and traced the new boundaries of his ever more splendid capital city of Byzantium, by Roger Payne.

The first name of the Church was ‘’Megale Ekklesia’’ which means ‘’the Grand Church’’. The first Hagia Sophia was built in 360. It was a wooden-roofed basilica, built on the site of a pagan temple. On the contrary to the popular belief, it was donated by Constantinus II not by Constantine the Great.

When its roof was burned by a fire in 404 and destroyed mostly in a second fire in 414, a great believer of orthodoxy Theodisius II dedicated another church in 415. Among the ruins of Theodisius’ church, you can see the architrave of twelve sheep that represents the twelve apostles of Christ in front of the monumental entrance.

The people of Byzantion was so pious at those time that Saint Gregory of Nyssa narrates this situation satirically:

‘’ If you want a man to change a piece of Money for you, he informs you of in what the Son differs from the father; if you ask the price of a loaf, you’re told by way of reply that the Son is inferior to the father ; and if you enquire whether the bath is ready, the answer is that the Son was begotten out of nothing.’’

Under the reign of Theodisius, the council of Chalcedon condemned the monophysite heresy.

Moreover, old pagan temples were descructed and the remains of them were used in new Christian structures. The upsided Medusa heads in Basilica Cistern are believed to have been taken from the closed Pagan temples.

Under the reign of Justinian, the Byzantine Empire lived its most magnificient years. However a-three-day-long riot created an opportunity to overthrow the Justinian in 532. People who got rid of the high taxes and military pressure, revolted against Justinian. With the help of his wife Theodora, Justinian was able to quell the riot which was initiated by the Hippodrome’s two fractions -the Blues & the Greens. Justinian decided to resist the rebellion after Thedora’s impressive speech. ‘Purple is the best winding sheet’ is her most famous quote supposedly made by her to her husband acc. to Procopius.

Hagia Sophia and Hagia Eirene.

Both Hagia Eirene and Hagia Sophia were burned down by the rebels. Within the same year, the reconstruction of the new church began. And it was completed in five years.

Byzantine Emperor Justinian (483-565) supervising the construction of Hagia Sophia, which only took five years. Manuscript illumination from a Slavonic copy, 1345, of the Chronicle of Manasses.

The architects of the new church were Isidorus of Miletus & Anthemius of Tralles. Actually, Isidorus was a professor of mechanics, and Anthemius was a famous mathematician. And Justinian was also pleased with their previous work: The Church of Hagia Sergios and Bachos.

Procopius, Buildings:

“…And Anthemius of Tralles, the most learned man in the skilled craft which is known as the art of building, not only of all his contemporaries, but also when compared with those who had lived long before him, ministered to the Emperor’s enthusiasm; and associated with him was another master-builder , Isidorus by name, a Milesian by birth, a man who was intelligent and worthy to assist the Emperor Justinian.”

Despite the Justinian’s hustle, Anthemius & Isidore invented new perspective in architecture. Hagia Sophia was unique in many aspects when it was finished. Pendentives and a dome with a square base were some of the examples accomplished by them. Justinian was also so concerned about and involved in the construction process. He would rarely sleep and often control the building. He is said to have seperated the workers equally on each side of the building to make them race.

According to a myth related to those days, when the workers have a break to have a meal, they leave a boy to guard the site. A eunuch appears and tells the boy to call the workers there to make the construction finish as soon as possible and he will be watch out the church until the boy returns. When Justinian hears that, he doesn’t allow the boy to go back the church so that the angel can guard it forever.

For the construction of Hagia Sophia, old pagan idols and edifices were plundered.  Marbles were brought from distant places such as France, Egypt, Marmara Island. Justinian is remembered as the founder of Hagia Sophia . Howewer; he was named as ‘’the builder of the world’’ by Procopius for building more than 100 chuches in both Constantinople and  the provinces of Asia after his conquers in both west and the east. He is also said to convert about 70.000 persons during his reign.

Emperor Justinian Enters Hagia Sophia (Credit: Hellenic World Foundation)

When Hagia Sophia was inaugurated, Justinian was so impressed and excited that after he thanked God he is said to have cried ‘’Glory to God who has deemed me worthy of accomplishing such a work! O Solomon! I have vanquished thee’’ implying the height of the dome.

Consecrated by Justinian in 537, Hagia Sophia couldn’t resist the earthquakes and both arches and the main dome collapsed in 557. Holy Table, ciborium and ambo were buried in the wreckage . Isidorus the Young constructed a new bigger dome by the order of Justinian. Even though it was reconstructed in four years, the dome of Isidorus survives today with its spectacular view. In 563, Hagia Sophia was reconsecrated by Justinian.

During the 7th century, the danger of Arab attacks continued and interactions with Arabs began. However, the attemps on the siege of Constantinople didn’t succeed.

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In Iconoclast period (see also Iconoclasm), the images and idols were prohibited to worship. So, most of the mosaics containing a human image were destroyed and covered during the reign of Leo III. This controversy continued until the end of the reign of the last Iconoclast Emperor Theophilius. As soon as Theophilius died, his wife started renovations in churches, and made the icons reinstalled. Theodora held fast to the veneration of icons that she kept in her chambers. However, when a servant blurted out the icons of the empress to the emperor, she defended herself as she was just playing with her dolls. Theodora’s dolls are still kept at a monastery on Mount Athos and displayed annually on the Sunday of the Triumph of Orthodoxy.

During the 9^th & 10^th century, Hagia Sophia suffered from the earthquakes which damaged the dome and the semi domes and the arches.

In the 11^th century, Byzantine Empire was suffered losses in its both the West and East lands. The Byzantine cooperated with Crusaders against Turks & Arabs. However, after the second Crusades, Crusaders failed to keep the possession of Jerusalem and couldn’t recapture it in the 3^rd Crusade. The 4^th Crusades went beyond its purpose and turned into the occupation of Constantinople because of the religious conflict between Catholic & Orthodox.

In 1204, the Crusaders, led by Enrico Dandolo- the doge of Venice, invaded the Constantinople. When Enrico Dandolo entered Constantinople with his giant navy, he was almost blind and about 90 years old. He was asked for help to place Alexius on the throne of Byzantine Empire, which led to the occupation of the city. He was notorious for his brutality and when the Byzantines took the city again, they sacked his tomb which was buried in Hagia Sophia. Today you can see a signboard written ‘’Enrico Dandolo’’ in Hagia Sophia. However; it was placed by  the Ottomans in the 19^th century.

Tomb of Enrico Dandolo in Hagia Sophia, Upper Gallery.

It was not just an invasion, the city was plundered for three days thoroughly. Crusaders also looted Hagia Sophia.

In his ‘’Chronicle of the fourth Crusade and the Constantinople‘’ Geoffrey de Villehardouin describes the sack ‘’The spoils and booty were collected together, and you must know that all was not brought into the common stock, for not a few kept things back, mangre the excommunication of the Pope. That which was brought to the churches was collected together and divided, in equal parts, between the Franks & the Venetians, according to the sworn covenant.’’

Nicetas Choniates, a Byzantine government official and historian describes the occupation of Constantinople in his work ‘’History’’ :

‘’How shall I begin to tell of the deeds wrought by these nefarious men! Alas, the images which ought to have been adored, were trodden under foot! Alas the relics of the holy martyrs were thrown into unclean places. When the sacred vases & utensils of unsurpassable art and grace and rare material , and the fine silver… the ambo of admirable workmanship, and the door…

Nay more, a certain harlot, a sharer in their quilt, a minister of furies… sat in the patriarch’s seat , singing an obscene song and dancing frequently. All places everywhere were filled full of all kinds of crime. Oh, immortal God, how great the afflictions of the man!’’

After the conquest, relics of True Cross, golden objects, chalices, plates and furnishings and even the doors were scattered all around Europe. Today, some churches in Venice , Germany and Italy are full of Byzantine belongings.

The four bronze horses of Hippodrome now adorns the entrance of St. Mark Cathedral.

Latin-Emperor-Baldwin-I-1204-1205

In Constantinople, a Latin Empire which could survive about 60 years, was established in 1204. Baldwin of Flanders came on the throne. However, the 4^th Crusade gave the city an irreparable damage and before the Latins could restore this new empire, the Greeks captured the Constantinople mostly by chance. An open postern gate helped them enter the city. The new emperor was crowned again in Hagia Sophia in 1261.

Constantinople became an easy prey to Ottoman sieges in the 14^th century. Although Bayezid who also built Rumeli Fortress besieged the city twice, all the sieges failed until the 15^th century.

Ottoman Period

Sultan Mehmed II, at the age of 23 took the full advantage of the predicament of the Byzantine Empire which was in a religious conflict with the East. He was a shrewd and clever man who had also a desire to be the glorious leader whom the Muslim prophet Mohammed heralded: ‘’They Shall Conquer Constantinople. Glory be to the prince and to the army that shall achieve it’’. 

The conquer lasted about 7 weeks which wore down the both sides. In fact Byzantines were in a great distress. There were many prophecies foretold that the last emperor would be named Constantine as the first had been. When the holy icon of Virgin slipped off its platform and an eclipse of the full moon which caused a-three-hour darkness was enough to make the Byzantines panic.

Eclipse of the full moon – Illustration

On 29 Tuesday of May, after breaking the famous chain that was stretched across the Golden Horn and fighting to the bitter end, Mehmed II entered the city. He was so saddened by the city’s devastated state, he is said to have recited a verse of Firdevsi:

“The spider serves as gatekeeper in the arch of Chosroes.

The owl plays martial music in the castle of Afrasiyab.”

He allowed his soldiers 3 days of sack of the city as a reward. They looted all buildings, churches and houses.

Entry of the Turks of Mehmed II (1432-81) into Constantinople, 29th May 1453, 1876 (oil on canvas), Constant, (Jean Joseph) Benjamin (1845-1902)

At the same time, having seen the betrayal of Giustiniani, the last Christian emperor – named Constantine, as prophesized before – bid farewell to his people and prayed in Hagia Sophia for begging pardon, and rode to battlefield and fought to the last drop of his blood and he was never seen again.

Felicia Hemans:

‘’And thou, O last and noblest Constantine !

Didst meet the storm unshrinking & along

Oh! Blest to die in freedom though in vain

Thine Empire’s proud exchange the grave, and not the chain … ‘’

As the famous historian Ducas narrates: ‘’ ..Three days after fall of the city he (Mehmed II) released the ships so that each might sail off to its own province and city, each carrying such a load that it seemed each would sink. And what sort of cargo? Luxurious cloths and textiles , objects and vessels of gold, silver, bronze, and brass, books beyond all counting and number, prisoners including priests and lay persons, nuns and monks. And having loaded all books, reaching unto a number beyond numbering, upon carts, they scattered them throughout the east and west. For one nomisma ten books could be bought Aristotelian, Platonic, theological, and every other kind. And all the icons were thrown into the flame…’’

Gennadios and Mehmed 2

It is said that when Mehmed II entered Hagia Sophia, he bent down to take a handful of earth and poured it on his head to thank God. It is also said that he destroyed the Altar. The Sultan converted the church into a mosque at once. Although Sultan made many restorations & renovations in new Hagia Sophia, he preserved many mosaic. When Sultan saw a mosaic of Christ first, he thought him to be a venerable man, not a prophet. Mehmed II built a minbar, a mihrab, a madrasa and a wooden minaret in Hagia Sophia within the years. However, the Big Cross on the dome and the  bell of the tower were removed. Because of the conquest of Constantinople-later turned into Istanbul, Mehmed II took the title ‘’Conqueror/Fatih’’.

Detail of Hagia Sophia from Melchior Lorichs’ 1559 panoramic of Constantinople

Hagia Sophia underwent many changes in the reigns of each Ottoman Sultan. The first wooden minaret of Mehmed II was rebuilt by Selim II. Sultan Bayezid II erected another minaret with brick stone on the southeast side of the mosque minaret. The other two minarets were built by Selim II and Murad III both of whom commissioned Sinan the Grand Architect .

After conquest of Istanbul Ottomans decided to use Hagia Sophia which is an ancient basilica as a mosque. Image tells the story of building minarets by Sinan the Grand Architect. (Credit: Taha Alkan)

The minarets would also symbolize the power of the empire and for Hagia Sophia they also provide extra buttressing to the structure. Architect Sinan also built the massive buttresses on the north and east side the mosque.

Suleyman the Magnificient put two giant candlestick beside mihrab, taken from his Hungarian campaign. He also put frames on the southerly pier, ‘’Haste ye to prayer ere the other hath passed.’’ to the north, ‘’ Haste ye to repentance ere death cometh.’’

Giant candlestick beside mihrab of Hagia Sophia.

Later, a marble muezzin platform (mahfil) and alabaster urns were incorporated into mosque during the reign of Murad III.  Mahmud I added an imaret, a school for children (madrasa) a fountain (şadırvan) in the courtyard, and a library adorned with Iznik tiles and bronze grilles inside the mosque.

Mosaics (see also mosaics of Hagia Sophia) were mostly covered with whitewash or plaster. The inaccessible ones were exposed to natural wear. And some of them were sold by inferior officials of the mosque.

Gaspare Fossati (1809-1883)

In 1847, a comprehensive restoration was started by Fossati Brothers, whom were commissioned by Abdulmejid. Swiss architects Giuseppe & Gaspare Fossati had been the official architects of the court of St. Petersburg before they came to Istanbul. Firstly, they uncovered the glorious mosaics hidden before and then showed them to the Sultan who thought them to be made by Fossatis and got angry at the Brothers. Later, he learned that mosaics were covered by his ancestors because of all these golden stuff . However, Sultan couldn’t dare to display of this Orthodox images and ordered Brothers to cover them again until the circumstances would allow them to be exhibited.

Sultan’s lodge

Fossatis made great alterations in Hagia Sophia. They designed the Sultan’s lodge with Byzantine columns and huge bronze chandeliers.

Mihrab and minber were renovated. Around the dome’s base an iron chain was placed and around the crown of the dome an inscription was made by M. Izzet Efendi who was also the calligrapher of the 8 wooden green roundels bearing the names of God, Mohammed with his grandson Hasan & Hussein; and the four caliphs.

After a-two-year restoration, Hagia Sophia was inaugurated again in 1849.

During the Balkan Wars in 1912, Hagia Sophia served as a hospital for cholera patients. And in the World War I , Turks were about to explode the Hagia Sophia Mosque in order not to give it to Greeks again.

Hagia Sophia as a Museum

The Turkish Republic was proclamated by the great leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ( see also Atatürk) in 1923.

In 1931, an American archeologist Thomas Whittemore ( see also Th. W.), who founded the Byzantine Institute of America, asked Atatürk’s permission for uncovering the mosaics of Hagia Sophia. After getting the permission, the works on mosaics started in 1932. This compelling task lasted for about 15 years.

As a step on the way of a secular country, Hagia Sophia was converted into a museum by the order of Atatürk and reopened in 1935.In 2014, Pope Francis gave a visit to Hagia Sophia after a long time.

In ‘’ the Travels’’ of Ibn-i Battuta who visited Hagia Sophia in the 14^th. Century, he makes a mention of the visits of the Pope in those years ‘’ the Pope comes to it once in the year. When he is at a distance of four nights’ journey from the town the king goes out to meet him and dismounts before him. When he enters the city, the king walks on foot in front of him, and comes to salute him every morning and evening during the whole period of his stay in Constantinople until he departs.’’.

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